The Hidden Intelligence Network of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire’s actual power rested on a well-developed system of information not visible to the public.

However, it gathered intelligence on every aspect of life, daily activity, and long-term cycles, and included a network of operatives that assisted the emperor in monitoring both international and local events.

This Intelligence Network, built on the many roads and trade routes throughout the subcontinent (India), provided a sophisticated mechanism for accessing vast quantities of information. This enabled the emperors—from Akbar to Aurangzeb—to maintain close control over their subject territories and provide for the early detection and suppression of any potential rebellions.

People in those times believed the emperor knew everything; while this was not accurate, there was certainly a great deal of accurate intelligence passed on to the emperor via the Mughal Intelligence network.

The question arises whether the Mughals created this system of intelligence gathering themselves. The answer is no, as there were actually similar systems in place throughout India long before the Mughals came to power.

Chanakya’s text, the Arthashastra, is an early example of such a system, with detailed instructions for rulers on how to use spies, informants, and people with false identities (sadhus) who could blend into their surroundings and report back to them.

This method continued to be used by the Delhi Sultans, particularly during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, who developed systems called ‘Barid’ and ‘Akhbar’ for collecting intelligence on trade, taxes, and other transactions by merchants and traders that influenced the Indian economy.  Although these systems were effective, they were essentially surveillance operations rather than actual espionage.

With Babur and Humayun, the use of intelligence as an offensive weapon became more prevalent. For example, Babur had his agents pretend to be traders and Sufi mystics to gather information and carry out sabotage, whereas Humayun used an elaborate system to protect sensitive communications from falling into enemy hands, to the point that messages were memorized rather than written down.

However, the systems used by both Babur and Humayun were ultimately dependent on the ruler’s personality and would collapse if that ruler were defeated, executed, or lost legitimacy.

The reign of Akbar marked a transition for the Mughal Empire. During this period, the Mughal Empire expanded extensively, with all information transmitted from every part of the Empire to the Emperor; however, due to the Empire’s size, it sometimes took weeks for that information to reach the Emperor.

Akbar understood that when information was not delivered promptly, it would hinder the Emperor’s ability to make sound judgments in governing the Empire, potentially harming the Empire.

To resolve this, Akbar introduced a formalized intelligence network within the Empire whereby Waqia-navis, or imperial news writers, were appointed in each province as royal correspondents. This meant that the Waqiat-navis provided the Emperor with a weekly account of events in the province without the provincial governors’ knowledge.

As time went on, the invention of the Waqiat-navis led to the emergence of a new group of secret intelligence writers who created reports written specifically for the Emperor, thereby ensuring that the Emperor alone had possession of the most private and confidential information. When Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb reigned, the Intelligence Network of the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent and efficiency by using agents who became the “eyes of the Empire” in every province.

Harkara (courier) is the primary messenger that formed the basis of the intelligence system. Harkara were not basic courier service employees; they were undercover agents who could travel hundreds of kilometers by foot (often using opium to suppress fatigue) or by horse, and who had numerous relay stations in between to facilitate the delivery of news. Each relay station was located every 8 to 12 kilometers, allowing for an average message to be delivered over a distance up to 300 kilometers within 24 hours.

The Mughal Intelligence Network employed several ingenious methods to send sensitive information.

Apparently benign poetry hid covert yet critical details only to those privy to the decoded message. Mughal Structural Analysis also aided the intelligence collection system; structures such as palatial estates, military installations, and recreational spaces enhanced acoustic amplification, improved the concealment of those monitoring confidential activities, and facilitated clandestine surveillance.

The female members of the royal household and the support staff contributed to this complex intelligence-gathering effort. Each individual could potentially be utilized as a communicator, an informant, or a security officer.

Also, espionage was not an isolated or fixed activity; as time passed, the Mughal intelligence system deteriorated due to corruption and conflict within its own structure. This internal conflict meant provincial governors could filter intelligence messages to different levels, creating a lack of consistency in information sent to the center and an unreliable flow of information.

When Nadir Shah invaded Delhi in 1739, the Mughal Empire received no timely intelligence of the attack. Thus, when Nadir Shah’s artillery began firing on Delhi, the Mughal authorities received advance notice but could not take any preventive measures.

Ultimately, the British took over the Mughal intelligence network and built their own infrastructure throughout the subcontinent. British facilities were built based on established spy networks and the use of telegraphic means of communication. By the time of the 1857 Uprising, the Mughal Emperor had lost the ability to develop and implement an effective intelligence system to address threats to his Empire.

Although it eventually collapsed, the Intelligence Network of the Mughal Empire was one of the most advanced intelligence-gathering systems in the world before the modern era, or “pre-modern” era; this “pre-modern” network had a living breath and held together a territorial empire for 3 centuries.

The Mughals managed to maintain control over their vast territory during the Middle Ages without modern means of communication by developing a highly efficient system for long-distance message transmission, using pigeons that flew across their territories, and creating secret codes embedded in the poetry they wrote.

The message of a letter could bring down an entire kingdom; the message of a pigeon could save the entire empire; and the message of a secret code contained in poetry could change the course of history.

The strategies of Chanakya (an ancient Indian philosopher and advisor to Indian kings) provided a foundation for the Mughals’ Intelligence Network and the governance of their empire; Akbar (third Mughal Emperor, grandson of Babur) built on Chanakya’s strategies by institutionalizing the Mughals’ Intelligence Network.

The Mughal Empire supports the idea that the power of information is as strong as military power, as evidenced by its emergence from the Mughal Intelligence Network.

As a result of this Intelligence Network, the Mughal Empire gained control over the majority of the Indian subcontinent for several centuries, providing evidence that knowledge and secrecy can be required to effectively control others just as much as swords and cannons are.